DECADES OF CLIMATE NEGOTIATIONS: AN OVERVIEW OF THE COP CONFERENCES

 Written by Michael Dabi (PhD Candidate), Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies, University of Ghana

Introduction

The Conference of the Parties (COP) is an essential series of annual global conferences convened under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). These conferences provide a platform for governments to engage in discussions, negotiations, and strategic planning to address the challenges posed by climate change.

Summary of the Conferences

COP1, held in Berlin, Germany, in 1995, laid the foundation for future climate negotiations and agreements by establishing a comprehensive framework convention on climate change. The UNFCCC now serves as the primary framework for international climate change negotiations, recognizing human-induced climate change and assigning a significant responsibility to industrialized nations in combating it.

COP2, hosted in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1996, aimed to build upon the groundwork of COP1 by developing a comprehensive plan to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, it faced difficulties due to disagreements between developed and developing countries regarding emission reduction responsibilities. Developed countries, being major contributors to global emissions, had historically contributed the most while developing countries often suffered the most from climate change impacts.

COP3, a pivotal moment in international climate negotiations, took place in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997. It established legally binding targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions through the Kyoto Protocol. This landmark agreement required developed countries to reduce their emissions by an average of 5% below 1990 levels during the commitment period from 2008 to 2012. However, the effectiveness of the Kyoto Protocol was hindered by the non-participation of significant emitting countries, such as the United States, China, and India.

COP4, held in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 1998, provided an opportunity for countries to assess their efforts in reducing greenhouse gas emissions according to the protocol's targets. The review process revealed a sobering reality: progress in reducing global emissions was slower than anticipated, emphasizing the magnitude of the challenge in transitioning to a low-carbon global economy and the need for more ambitious climate action.

COP5, hosted in Bonn, Germany, in 1999, played a crucial role in implementing the Kyoto Protocol. It aimed to finalize the rules for its implementation, providing countries with a clear framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The successful finalization of these rules underscored the importance of technical and procedural details in international climate negotiations.

COP6, held in 2000, focused on finalizing the details of the Kyoto Protocol and addressing technical and procedural issues to facilitate its full implementation. However, persistent disagreements between developed and developing countries on key issues, including emission reduction mechanisms, carbon sinks, and financial and technical support, highlighted the complexity and challenges of international climate negotiations.

COP7, which took place in 2001, marked a significant milestone as it finalized the details of the Kyoto Protocol, known as the Marrakesh Accords. These accords provided clarity and guidance for countries to effectively implement the protocol, demonstrating the international community's commitment to addressing climate change.

COP8, held in 2002, reviewed the progress made towards achieving goals set in previous COP conferences, particularly those related to the Kyoto Protocol. It provided a platform for countries to assess their efforts in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and highlighted the need for more ambitious climate action.

COP9, held in 2003, provided an opportunity for countries to assess their efforts in reducing greenhouse gas emissions in line with the targets established by the Kyoto Protocol. The conference also highlighted the disparities between developed and developing countries in their capacity to implement climate action, emphasizing the need for continued support and cooperation from developed countries.

COP10, held in Buenos Aires, Argentina, aimed to review progress towards achieving goals related to the Kyoto Protocol. It provided a platform for countries to assess their efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and ensure commitments translated into effective action. COP10 fostered cooperation and mutual learning but also emphasized the need for continued support and cooperation from developed countries.

COP11, held in 2005, established a plan for reducing greenhouse gas emissions after the expiration of the Kyoto Protocol in 2012. The conference aimed to ensure that international climate action momentum did not diminish and established a roadmap for post-Kyoto climate action through the Montreal Action Plan. The plan outlined key areas of focus, including mitigation, adaptation, technology development and transfer, and financial support for developing countries.

COP12, held in Nairobi, Kenya, aimed to review progress made towards achieving goals set in previous COP conferences, particularly those related to the Kyoto Protocol and the Montreal Action Plan. The conference focused on ensuring the effective implementation of commitments under these agreements.

COP13, held in Bali, Indonesia, was successful in establishing a roadmap for negotiations towards a post-Kyoto climate agreement. The conference outlined key areas of focus for future negotiations, including mitigation, adaptation, technology development and transfer, and financial support for developing countries. It also established a two-track process involving negotiations among parties to the Kyoto Protocol and broader discussions among all parties to the UNFCCC.

COP14, held in Poznań, Poland, provided a platform for countries to share experiences, best practices, and challenges in implementing climate action. The conference highlighted the disparities between developed and developing countries in their capacity to implement climate action.

COP15, held in Copenhagen, Denmark, aimed to establish a new global agreement on climate change to replace the Kyoto Protocol. However, it faced significant challenges due to disagreements between developed and developing countries over emission reduction targets, financial support, and the legal form of the agreement.

COP16, held in Cancún, Mexico, successfully established a new global agreement on climate change to succeed the Kyoto Protocol. The Cancún Agreements included commitments from both developed and developing countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, mechanisms for monitoring and verifying these commitments, and funding mechanisms to support climate action in developing countries.

COP17, held in Durban, South Africa, resulted in adopting the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, which established a new global agreement on climate change. The agreement committed all countries to negotiate a new, legally binding agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The Durban Platform also extended the Kyoto Protocol until 2020, ensuring the continued legal binding of developed countries' emission reduction commitments.

COP18, held in Doha, Qatar, aimed to establish a new global agreement on climate change to succeed the Kyoto Protocol. The conference extended the Kyoto Protocol until 2020 and introduced the Doha Amendment, which established new emission reduction commitments for developed countries.

COP19, held in Warsaw, Poland, aimed to establish a new global agreement on climate change to succeed the Kyoto Protocol. The conference established the Warsaw Framework for REDD+, a mechanism to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and addressed key issues such as climate finance and loss and damage.

COP20, held in Lima, Peru, aimed to establish a new global agreement on climate change to succeed the Kyoto Protocol. The conference resulted in the Lima Call for Climate Action, which laid the groundwork for the Paris Agreement negotiated the following year at COP21.

COP21, held in Paris, France, was a landmark conference where the Paris Agreement was adopted. The agreement set a global goal of limiting the global average temperature to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. It also included financial support and technology transfer provisions to assist developing countries.

COP22, held in Marrakech, Morocco, aimed to build upon the momentum of the Paris Agreement and advance the climate action framework. The conference marked the entry into force of the Paris Agreement and focused on accelerating emissions reductions and addressing forest loss and land degradation.

COP23, held in Bonn, Germany, aimed to advance the implementation of the Paris Agreement and foster global alliances to combat climate change. The conference focused on completing and operationalizing the structure of the Paris Agreement and emphasized the importance of addressing loss and damage caused by climate change.

COP24, held in Katowice, Poland, finalized the implementation guidelines of the Paris Agreement. The conference made significant progress in global climate action, reviewing previous climate goals and emphasizing the need for more ambitious action in the face of growing climate threats.

COP25, held in Madrid, Spain, aimed to secure global net-zero carbon emissions and limit the global average temperature increase to within 1.5 degrees Celsius. The conference resulted in the adoption of the Glasgow Climate Pact, commitments to halt and reverse forest loss, and significant financial pledges for adaptation.

COP26, held in Glasgow, UK, focused on achieving net-zero carbon emissions and maintaining a 1.5 degrees Celsius temperature increase. The conference adopted the Glasgow Climate Pact, highlighting accelerated emissions reductions and efforts to address forest loss and land degradation. It also witnessed significant financial commitments. However, the conference highlighted the complexities of international climate negotiations and the need for further carbon dioxide emissions reductions.

 The 27th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP27) took place in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, from November 6 to 20, 2022. The conference aimed to review progress made in implementing the Paris Agreement, address climate finance, promote the development and transfer of clean technologies, and increase ambition in climate action. COP27 was successful in launching the Adaptation Action Framework and the Global Methane Pledge but faced challenges such as the lack of progress on climate finance and ambition in climate action. The COVID-19 pandemic and difficulty reaching a consensus on key issues further exacerbated these challenges.

COP28, scheduled for Dubai, United Arab Emirates, is scheduled to take place from November 30 to December 12, 2023. The central theme of COP28 is "Building Climate Resilience and Achieving a Net-Zero Future." The conference will focus on several pivotal issues, including implementing the Paris Agreement, climate finance, clean technology development and transfer, and addressing loss and damage caused by climate change.

COP28 represents a critical juncture for taking action on climate change, with decisions made at the conference significantly impacting the future of our planet. The COP28 conference will focus on assessing progress made in implementing the Paris Agreement, ensuring developing countries have the necessary resources to address the climate crisis, and promoting the development and transfer of clean technologies.

Conclusion

Each COP conference has played a crucial role in shaping the global response to climate change. These conferences have achieved significant milestones, such as the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, while also highlighting challenges and disparities between developed and developing countries. As we look ahead to COP28 and beyond, it is vital that countries come together to take ambitious action, address climate finance, promote clean technologies, and prioritize resilience to ensure a sustainable and resilient future for our planet.

FURTHER READING

• Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment. (1990). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Wapner, P. (2010). The politics of climate change. London, UK: Earthscan.
• Stern, N. (2007). The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

• Climate Change Science: Mitigation. (2001). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Climate Change Science: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. (2001). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Grubb, M., Vrolijk, C., & Brack, D. (1999). The Kyoto Protocol: A Guide and Assessment. London, UK: Earthscan.

• Grubb, M., Vrolijk, C., & Brack, D. (2001). The Marrakech Accords: A Guide and Assessment. London, UK: Earthscan.
• Edenhofer, O., Held, H., & Kloeckner, P. (2010). Climate Change and Sustainable Development. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• **Victor, D. G., Raustiala, K., & Victor, D. G. (2011). The Economics of Climate Change. New York, NY: Springer.

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2001). The Buenos Aires Action Plan. Bonn, Germany: Author.
• Faure, M., Lefevere, J., & Peeters, M. (2010). Climate Change and the Law. Alphen aan den Rijn, the Netherlands: Kluwer Law International.
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• United Nations Environment Programme. (2005). The Montreal Protocol: Ozone Layer Protection. Nairobi, Kenya: Author.
• United Nations Forum on Forests. (2009). Climate Change and the World's Forests. New York, NY: Author.
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• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2007). The Bali Action Plan. Bonn, Germany: Author.
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2009). The Copenhagen Accord. Bonn, Germany: Author.
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• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2011). The Durban Platform for Enhanced Action. Bonn, Germany: Author.
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2012). The Doha Amendment. Bonn, Germany: Author.
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2013). The Warsaw Framework for REDD+. Bonn, Germany: Author.

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2014). The Lima Call for Climate Action. Bonn, Germany: Author.
• **United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2015). The Paris Agreement. Bonn, Germany: Author.
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2016). The Global Goal on Adaptation. Bonn, Germany: Author.

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2017). The Santiago Climate Change Conference. Bonn, Germany: Author.
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2018). The Katowice Climate Change Conference. Bonn, Germany: Author.
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2021). The Glasgow Climate Change Conference. Bonn, Germany: Author.